Abstract

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have emerged as a crucial technology for monitoring control and data acquisition in diverse applications ranging from environmental monitoring and industrial automation to healthcare and military surveillance. Energy efficiency remains one of the most critical challenges in WSNs due to the limited battery capacity of sensor nodes and the often inaccessible deployment environments. Traditional routing and clustering algorithms while effective in certain scenarios frequently fail to maintain optimal energy consumption and network longevity when node heterogeneity and dynamic operational conditions are considered. This research introduces an unconventional clustering-based energy-efficient algorithm designed specifically for heterogeneous WSNs with various types of nodes. The proposed method incorporates adaptive cluster formation dynamic cluster-head selection based on residual energy node density and communication cost and optimized intra- and inter-clust